Biol. Aust. J. Sci. 38, 638–643. Similarly, targeting the yield gap does not take into account the economic considerations of production such as cost of inputs or price received for product quality (Lobell et al., 2009; Fischer et al., 2014). The capacity of phloem loading impacts on the relationship between source and sink. Trends Plant Sci. Understanding the processes and conditions governing changes to sink strength, along with improvements in technology that allow for the direct measurement of sink demand will lead to greater accuracy in the way sink strength is described. Traditional focus on maximizing yield and the development of superior genotypes for ideal growth conditions is unlikely to provide adequate nutrition for a growing population under a more variable climate. Plant Physiol. Accessibility 4:184. doi: 10.3389/fpls.2013.00184, Patrick, J. W., and Colyvas, K. (2014). 2020 Jun 19;25(12):2833. doi: 10.3390/molecules25122833. J. Exp. Phloem loading and plasmodesmata. Plant Biol. The photosynthetic source cells produce the sugars, which can move symplastically to sieve tubes. doi: 10.1111/j.1744-7348.1995.tb05015.x, Korner, C. (2015). Is stimulation of leaf photosynthesis by elevated carbon dioxide concentration maintained in the long term? 190, 838–853. If the sink issmall, the yield cannot be high; and even if the sink is large, the yield … How can we make plants grow faster? Environ. Phenotypic plasticity of winter wheat heading date and grain yield across the US great plains. PARTITIONING / SOURCE-SINK RELATIONSHIPS William T. Pettigrew USDA-ARS, Crop Production Systems Research Unit, Stoneville, MS INTRODUCTION Photosynthesis is one of the principle biochemical processes underpinning plant growth and development. Transfer of materials from source to sink is controlled by a highly regulated signaling network elicited by resource availability (Paul and Foyer, 2001; Rossi et al., 2015). Bot. Source-to-sink transport of sugar and regulation by environmental factors. Res. The integrative nature of harvest index may be one of the factors that influence this trait to be highly conserved, as multiple physiological processes influence its determination under varying environmental and genetic conditions. New Phytol. Privacy, Help Aust. Funct. Harvest index - a review of its use in plant-breeding and crop physiology. However, non-vascular plants lack both source and sink. Thiourea, a ROS scavenger, regulates source-to-sink relationship to enhance crop yield and oil content in Brassica juncea (L.). Crop yield potential as described by Evans and Fischer (1999), is the yield of an adapted cultivar grown in an ideal environment where abiotic and biotic stresses are effectively controlled. Annu. Role of myo-inositol phosphate synthase and sucrose synthase genes in plant seed development. (2007). Lopes, M. S., and Reynolds, M. P. (2012). Drought stress therefore leads to a change in the composition and concentration of nutrients potentially altering the nutritive quality of yield under stress conditions. Stability analysis in plant breeding. Growing regions 4. Bot. (2010). Yield gap analysis-rationale, methods and applications-Introduction to the special issue. Adapted…, Yield quantity and nutritional quality…, Yield quantity and nutritional quality are interrelated determining the yield potential of a…, National Library of Medicine doi: 10.1073/pnas.0902279106, Reynolds, M., Bonnett, D., Chapman, S. C., Furbank, R. T., Manes, Y., Mather, D. E., et al. 14, 742–754. Major influences of changing environmental conditions on the relationship between source-sink dynamics. Front. Physiological breeding. 25, 107–114. Regulation of assimilate import into sink organs: update on molecular drivers of sink strength. SOURCE-SINK RELATIONSHIPS IN CROP PLANTS B. Venkateswarlu and R.M. What is stress? Factors that influence crop harvest index include the energy and protein content of seeds, long-term breeding achievements, and extreme (either hot or cold) temperatures during crop reproductive development. doi: 10.1093/jxb/erq112, Zhu, X. G., Long, S. P., and Ort, D. R. (2010). This has prevented the exploration of questions that have interested researchers since the early discussions surrounding sink strength including the abortion of sinks and a full exploration of fluxes between sources and sinks under varying environmental conditions (see, Farrar, 1993 and references therein). U.S.A. 106, 14162–14167. Analysis of adaptation in a plant-breeding programme. doi: 10.1146/annurev-arplant-042809-112206, Keywords: abiotic stress, crop yield potential, environment, harvest index, photosynthesis, yield, Citation: Smith MR, Rao IM and Merchant A (2018) Source-Sink Relationships in Crop Plants and Their Influence on Yield Development and Nutritional Quality. As recently demonstrated by Wang et al. doi: 10.1016/j.tplants.2012.06.005, Sadras, V. O., Lake, L., Li, Y. L., Farquharson, E. A., and Sutton, T. (2016). B. Buchanan (Rockville, MD: American Society of Plant Physiologists), 730–784. Crop yield gaps: their importance, magnitudes, and causes. 60, 1873–1883. (2001). Gene 439, 1–10. doi: 10.1016/j.fcr.2003.08.002, Braun, D. M., Wang, L., and Ruan, Y. L. (2014). Rates of phloem unloading are an important component in this framework and offers a further point of potential regulation of photoassimilate movement. Understanding plant responses to drought - from genes to the whole plant. A more comprehensive understanding of harvest index and the basis upon which variations in harvest index are achieved among different genotypes would be of considerable advantage to food production systems yet the complexity of the trait inhibits its characterisation. (2014). Hormonal and metabolic regulation of source-sink relations under salinity and drought: from plant survival to crop yield stability. 28, 361–405. However, we have less of an understanding about the influence of changing environmental conditions on the export of carbon from leaves and import to sinks, partitioning between heterotrophic tissues and remobilization of carbohydrates into reproductive structures. Photosynthesis, carbon partitioning, and yield. (2005). Specifically, our ability to reduce the yield gap and enhance the security of food production is limited by misconceptions and knowledge gaps in: (1) the clarification of metrics to describe yield production, (2) coupling of source strength to yield production, (3) characterizing the source-path-sink transition for resources within the plant, (4) defining sink strength and its measurement, and (5) characterizing the resilience of yield quantity and quality. Further research in this area should aim to characterize the processes determining the balance between allocation of resources to yield development and nutritional quality. J. Exp. Unable to load your collection due to an error, Unable to load your delegates due to an error. The resulting yield gap is defined as the difference between average yield at the farm gate and crop yield potential for a specific land area. Photosynthesis solutions to enhance productivity. 105, 173–219. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-8137.2004.01224.x, Ainsworth, E. A., Yendrek, C. R., Skoneczka, J. Bot. We present the limitations of current approaches to accurately measure sink strength and emphasize differences in coordination between photosynthesis and yield under varying environmental … Salter WT, Merchant A, Trethowan RM, Richards RA, Buckley TN. doi: 10.1093/jxb/erq311, Reynolds, M., and Langridge, P. (2016). R. Soc. (2003). Stay-green in spring wheat can be determined by spectral reflectance measurements (normalized difference vegetation index) independently from phenology. Crop Yields and Global Food Security: Will Yield Increase Continue to Feed the World? (2015). J Biol Chem. (2016). 10.1111/j.1365-3040.2011.02378.x Chang. Field Crops Res. Despite the importance of such a relationship, the mechanistic basis for this regulation is poorly described. Visperas' ABSTRACT . Plant J. Despite the importance of partitioning on yield volume, we have just begun to understand the mechanisms responsible for the distribution of photoassimilates throughout the plant (Braun et al., 2014). Plant Cell Environ. Raising yield potential of wheat. There are numerous transporters that have been found to aid in this process. The targeted overexpression of SlCDF4 in the fruit enhances tomato size and yield involving gibberellin signalling. Improvement of crop yield in dry environments: benchmarks, levels of organisation and the role of nitrogen. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-3040.1996.tb02061.x, Finlay, K. W., and Wilkinson, G. N. (1963). Regions of photoassimilates consumption 2. Water deficits uncouple growth from photosynthesis, increase C content, and modify the relationships between C and growth in sink organs. (2014). This site needs JavaScript to work properly. that the source-sink relationship is impacted by the environment which drives source activity (photosynthesis) and consequently increases sink activity (tissue growth and storage) … doi: 10.1111/j.1365-313X.2010.04142.x, Turgeon, R. (1996). Such observations may be attributable to ontological differences and variances in determinacy coupled with the onset of stress conditions. Figure 1. doi: 10.1071/FP14334, Borrás, L., Slafer, G. A., and Otegui, M. E. (2004). Online ahead of print. Plant Sci. Accordingly, two general strategies can be envisaged to improve crop yields. The capacity for phloem loading depends upon the transport mechanism. 17, 656–665. Med. Increases in yield observed in these environments may be a consequence of increases in organ number rather than increased organ size (see, Patrick and Colyvas, 2014) suggesting that increases to crop yield (i.e., organ size x organ number) may be unrelated to carbon availability at the whole plant scale but alternatively, limited by the transport capacity of photoassimilate to small sinks (Ruan et al., 2012; Patrick, 2013). Source strength for photoassimilates is dictated by both net photosynthetic rate and the rate of photoassimilate remobilisation from source tissues. Plant Cell Environ. Despite this importance, our understanding of processes that influence harvest index is far from complete. Climate and efficiency of crop production in Britain. Philos. On the other side of the equation, increases in yield are limited by the number and size of grain tissue (Borrás et al., 2004; Rao et al., 2017). Natl. B., Yan, W. G., Agrama, H., Jia, L. M., Jackson, A., Moldenhauer, K., et al. 2020 Aug 21;295(34):12002-12013. doi: 10.1074/jbc.REV120.010918. 352, 901–906. We name this optlmal sink strength the sink reference. Harvest index has high heritability under both ideal and stressed environments (Hay, 1995). Since quality is likely to vary among patches of habitat, it is important to consider how … (2011). By revising these concepts and metrics, researchers in collaboration with producers, are able to identify mechanistically based crop traits from planting to postharvest that may be adjusted to improve overall yields and reduce yield gaps. Evidence of decreasing mineral density in wheat grain over the last 160 years. 10.1016/j.gene.2009.03.007 Crop yield components - photoassimilate supply- or utilisation limited-organ development? Photosynthesis is well described and efforts to improve efficiency tend to focus on weak links with yield production or transposing different mechanisms into the pathway (for example, Long et al., 2015). However, as current models relating photosynthetic rates to biomass production do not fully consider post-photosynthetic mechanisms and their fluctuations in response to environmental variability, it is difficult to predict the tangible impact of this change on yield. Aiming to maintain a consistent, resilient supply of yield from plants working with the capacity to adapt to stress while maintaining high nutritional quality is vital. Yield of many crops rarely meets its maximum potential for production. For seed crops, yield is the cumulative result of both source and sink strength for photoassimilates and nutrients over the course of seed development. eCollection 2020 Oct. Renau-Morata B, Carrillo L, Cebolla-Cornejo J, Molina RV, Martí R, Domínguez-Figueroa J, Vicente-Carbajosa J, Medina J, Nebauer SG. Future agricultural crop research objectives must continue to address the optimization of resource use efficiency to ensure the stability of yield (Ainsworth et al., 2012). Crop Sci. This review focuses on the current understanding of how the source-sink relationship in crop plants influences rates of yield development and the resilience of yield and nutritional quality. 155, 857–875. Plant Biol. We conclude that the different responses to plant density of the source capacity (leaves) and sink strength (ears) for maize in intercropping and sole systems could help optimize maize plant density (9 plants m -2) for greater maize yield gain and … Can improvement in photosynthesis increase crop yields? 41, 893–913. Despite advances in phenotyping technologies (Rascher et al., 2011; Dhondt et al., 2013; Furbank et al., 2015), up until recently sink strength viewed in terms of carbon demand by individual sinks had still not been measured. 188, 655–673. Fischer, R. A., Byerlee, D., and Edmeades, G. O. Food Agric. Measurement of harvest index does not capture the efficiency of resource investment and confounds the processes and pathways that regulate the transfer of these resources from the total shoot biomass into grain. Appl. For instance, the volume of soil occupied by a crop’s root tissue strongly influences the amount of nutrients available for the function and development of plant tissues (Poorter et al., 2012), and developing seeds in particular. B Biol. Sci Rep. 2020 Jun 30;10(1):10645. doi: 10.1038/s41598-020-67537-x. B Biol. IR contributed expertise in crop physiology and plant nutrition. While previous research has focused on the nutritional content of grain in response to an environmental change, for instance elevated (CO2) (Myers et al., 2014) there has been little research on the resilience of grain nutritional quality under ideal or stress conditions. (1999). 64, 1625–1636. The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. In crop plants, the physiological basis of dry matter production . 56, 2223–2236. Partitioning of the photosynthate is determined by the source–sink relationships existing at a given time in the development of the plant. Article report by in silico Plants. Unravelling the complex trait of harvest index in rapeseed (Brassica napus L.) with association mapping. BMC Genomics 16:379. doi: 10.1186/s12864-015-1607-0, Monteith, J. L. (1977). To capitalize on recent advances that have improved photosynthetic efficiency, developing an understanding of the way energy and nutrients move through a plant and into a developing seed is key to ensuring the efficiency of yield production, particularly under abiotic stress. Wide variation in the suboptimal distribution of photosynthetic capacity in relation to light across genotypes of wheat. Despite this complexity, it is widely recognized that harvest index is an appropriate trait to target for increasing yield potentials for crop breeding activities (Amthor, 2007; Reynolds et al., 2011; Sadras and Richards, 2014). In crop plants, the physiological basis of dry matter production is dependent on the source-sink concept, where the source is the potential capacity for photosynthesis and the sink is the potential capacity to utilize the photosynthetic products. Biol. Under these circumstances, nutritional quality is less coupled with resource availability. A., Long S. P. (2012). Would you like email updates of new search results? 62, 439–452. In the anisohydric genotype, the effective use of water is relevant when there is still soil water available at maturity or when deep-rooted genotypes access water deep in the soil profile that is not normally available (Araus, 2002; Polania et al., 2017). 10.1111/j.1469-8137.2004.01224.x doi: 10.1104/pp.113.220657, Patrick, J. W. (2013). doi: 10.1111/j.1365-3040.2008.01853.x, Cui, S. Y., He, X. H., Fu, S. X., Meng, Q. C., Gai, J. Y., and Yu, D. Y. Integrative traits such as harvest index are the “low hanging fruit” (Reynolds and Langridge, 2016) that allow us to see where yield improvement is required. 8600 Rockville Pike Adapted from (Korner, 2015). doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0029350, Lobell, D. B., Cassman, K. G., and Field, C. B. Improving photosynthesis and crop productivity by accelerating recovery from photoprotection. Major influences of changing environmental conditions on the relationship between source-sink dynamics. Impact Factor 4.402 | CiteScore 7.8More on impact ›, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), Australia, Institute of Plant Breeding and Genetic Resources, Hellenic Agricultural Organisation (HAO), Greece. The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. 143, 1–3. Improving photosynthesis and yield potential in cereal crops by targeted genetic manipulation: prospects, progress and challenges. J. Exp. Sink source relationship • sink source relationship is a process involved in translocation of photosynthetic products in plants 3. Long distance transport is primarily achieved via the phloem stream. Accelerating yield potential in soybean: potential targets for biotechnological improvement. Key bottlenecks in the production of yield quantity and nutritional quality remain and represent a key focus for prioritization in addressing the yield gap and crop yield potential. doi: 10.1098/rstb.1977.0140, Muller, B., Pantin, F., Genard, M., Turc, O., Freixes, S., Piques, M., et al. J. Agric. 31, 162–171. The molecular and physiological events leading to seed formation are far from understood (Abid et al., 2009). doi: 10.1093/aob/mcf049, Arp, W. J. Front. Plant Physiol. However, the pursuit of reducing the yield gap as an aspirational target has limitations. Bot. Abiotic stress impacts more on growth compared to photosynthesis earlier in plant development, however, during the harvest phase the opposite occurs as the plant is able to rely on remobilization of reserves to buffer the impact of abiotic stresses. 26 705–714. doi: 10.1016/j.heares.2012.12.001, Voitsekhovskaja, O. V., Rudashevskaya, E. L., Demchenko, K. N., Pakhomova, M. V., Batashev, D. R., Gamalei, Y. V., et al. In order for plants to grow and develop effectively, coordination between sources and sinks is required. Recently, support for the link between increasing photosynthesis and yield has been driven by studies performed under elevated (CO2) conditions which have suggested a need to increase source strength in order to improve yields (Ainsworth and Bush, 2011). 67, 4339–4351. Depending on the agricultural context, the importance of resilience in yield production may outweigh that of maximization through the valuation of risk mitigation. Much of the variation observed in harvest index values results from the diverse range of climates and soils, which are a feature of the cropping region. -, Ainsworth E. A., Long S. P. (2005). ACIAR Monograph No. doi: 10.1098/rstb.1997.0069, Evans, L. T., and Fischer, R. A. 62, 1715–1729. For example, plant models of isohydric (“water saving”) and anisohydric (“water spending”) have been developed for targeting genotypes according to agro-ecological zones and types of water stress. Plants respond to stress in a number of ways to maintain yield (Chaves and Oliveira, 2004) particularly with respect to the determinacy of growth. The editor and reviewers' affiliations are the latest provided on their Loop research profiles and may not reflect their situation at the time of review. Whilst the relationship between sources and sinks is undoubtedly complex, the definition typically given for sink strength is: where; sink size is the total biomass of sink tissue (g), and sink activity refers to the specific uptake rate of the resource in mol g-1 s-1 (White et al., 2016). Cell to whole-plant phenotyping: the best is yet to come. doi: 10.1093/jxb/erw221, Sadras, V. O., and Richards, R. A. R. Soc. Resource availability undoubtedly impacts growth, yield and nutritional quality and in turn is influenced by the interaction between sources and sinks through transport pathways. Less considered is the influence of sink strength in this relationship and its capacity to influence source activity. Responses and impacts of abiotic stress such as drought and nutrient deficiency have been well studied for their influence on yield development. Harvest index has a theoretical maximum and increases beyond this require additional shoot biomass (Hay, 1995). A meta-analytic review of the responses of photosynthesis, canopy properties and plant production to rising CO2. Plant breeding and drought in C3 cereals: what should we breed for? 162, 1720–1732. It is clear that 21st century agricultural production faces many challenges. Whilst much is known regarding the processes underpinning how this is achieved (Pritchard, 2007), few studies have sought to exploit these properties to improve yield production. (2008). For agricultural production, yield is typically expressed on a volumetric or gravimetric basis, which does not directly reflect nutritional content. Source is a material producer and exporter, and sink is a material importer and consumer (Foyer and Paul, 2001). (2013). doi: 10.1016/j.gene.2009.03.007, PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar, Ainsworth, E. A., and Bush, D. R. (2011). (2013). Protoplasma 248, 225–235. Sci. In order to appropriately target improvements in these processes, it is pertinent to consider our current understanding about the impact of environmental conditions on both the source and the sink, as well as the path between the two, as the exact mechanisms that impair transport are not well known (Lemoine et al., 2013). At the plant scale, focus must be placed on components that enhance plant efficiency and yield production under a range of climatic conditions and resource availabilities. Aust. Relationship between carbohydrate partitioning and drought resistance in common bean. The label was introduced photosynthetically by means of exposing individual leaves or the whole above-ground part of plants to air containing 14СО2 in different stages of their growth and development. -, Ainsworth E. A., Bush D. R. (2011). The concepts of source and sink in plants were first proposed by Mason and Maskell (1928). Epub 2020 Jun 17. (2008). Opin. Metrics used to quantify yield are crop-specific, commonly including volume and/or weight together with plant efficiency expressed in terms such as harvest index. Long, S. P., Zhu, X.-G., Naidu, S. L., and Ort, D. R. (2006). eCollection 2012. Classical plant physiology divides plant organs into resource pro-ducers, like mature leaves, and target organs for transported assimilates, like … For our major crops, yield improvement has moderated (Amthor, 2007; Ray et al., 2013; Foyer et al., 2016). Accelerating yield potential in soybean: potential targets for biotechnological improvement. For instance, the prioritization of individual grain development both along the nodes of the plant and throughout development requires further exploration through detailed phenotypic characterisation of individual seed development. Alterations in Herbage Yield, Antioxidant Activities, Phytochemical Contents, and Bioactive Compounds of Sabah Snake Grass (, Abid G., Silue S., Muhovski Y., Jacquemin J. M., Toussaint A., Baudoin J. P. (2009). doi: 10.1016/S0065-2113(08)60559-3, Evans, L. T. (1997). Within this model, transporters play a role in moving and partitioning photoassimilates from sources to sinks. Is stimulation of leaf photosynthesis by elevated carbon dioxide concentration maintained in the long term? As described by Ainsworth and Bush (2011); “if sink demand is high, sucrose levels are low and transcription is high. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-3040.1991.tb01450.x, Becker, H. C., and Leon, J. doi: 10.1093/jxb/ers071, Luo, X., Ma, C. Z., Yue, Y., Hu, K. N., Li, Y. Y., Duan, Z. Q., et al. Gene 439 1–10. J. Exp. The source is the photosynthetically active tissues of the plant. Given the number of factors that relate to sink activity (growth, metabolism), it is incongruous that sink size has a proportional influence on sink activity over sink strength as represented in Eq. Such studies conclude that as harvest index is integrative it is therefore affected by many factors that influence source-sink dynamics (Hay, 1995; Luo et al., 2015). We include here, suggested additions to the conceptual framework for yield production and proposed practical solutions as summarized in Table 1. Equations for yield potential outlined by Monteith (1977) describe the efficiency with which a plant intercepts light, converts intercepted radiation to biomass and partitions this biomass into the harvested product only when the given crop is grown in ideal conditions where ample nutrients, water and all biological stresses are controlled (Evans and Fischer, 1999; Long et al., 2006; Amthor, 2007). The relationship is complex, and consideration must begin to focus on the dynamic nature of the network, both for source and sink strength to fully comprehend the plasticity of yield development, particularly under changing environmental conditions where elements such as carbon, nitrogen and water govern the fluxes and hence source-sink dynamics (see Figure 1). (2016) demonstrated that soybean grown under combined elevated (CO2) and drought did not have the same level of stimulation as provided by elevated (CO2) alone as the combined impact led to limitations on carbon, water and nutrient relations. 213, 50–65. Expanding our research into the capacity for transport and a sinks ability to accept photoassimilates is vital to ensure the resilience of yield. |, Harvest Index as a Metric to Select for Improved Yield Production, Coupling Source Strength to Yield Potential, Resilience of Yield Quantity and Nutritional Quality, Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY).
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